Action Research in Vocational Education

Action Research in Vocational Education

Christopher Molnar

ELC751 – Action Orientated Research

Faculty Reader: Dr. Rena Palloff

July – August 2008

A quick search of Google using the words “vocational” and “research” returns 20,000,000 results. Why are researchers spending so much time and resources on vocational education? It is simple: Vocational education allows people in a society learn something that will allow them to put food on their families table without spending years in a college classroom; the results are almost immediate. But why so much research? There are many different methods used to look at a problem, these methods all are designed to identify a problem, evaluate the problem, and offer a solution. If we return to Google and add the words “action research” to the “vocational” and “research” search the results are narrowed down to roughly 158,000.

In this paper I am going to attempt to define several of the major cultures of inquiry as well and then I am going to link each of these cultures back to their usefulness as a part of an action research project. Following this I am going to identify and discuss existing research in vocational education using grounded theory, case study, experimental and evaluation research. Finally I am going to present a research proposal that would answer the question, “In the last two years what are the characteristics of the successful students in my HVAC program at Porter and Chester Institute?”

Prior to starting the discussion of the various cultures of inquiry and how they fit into action research I must first define and talk about what action research is.

Action Research

The use of action research can improve the students understanding as well as the instructor’s effectiveness in vocational and technical education. Action research is a combination of pure research and applied research where the social part of the inquiry is aimed at generating the knowledge and the action portion is aimed at supporting a social change (Denzin, 2000). According to Greenwood and Levin (2000), action research is a co-generative inquiry because it involves both the researcher and the local stakeholder to participate equally in the process. Greenwood and Levin go on to write that action research can be described as a valid research approach in which both the researchers and participants work together to generate knowledge while using the diversity and experiences of the group as an opportunity to solve real-life problems.

Action research is a cycle; an action project may go through many changes. The researcher will look into a problem and work with the stakeholders or participants to come up with a solution. The solution will then be implemented and then the solution will be reflected on. If the solution did not fix, or make life better for the participants then the solution may need to be adjusted and the cycle may need to start over again. In each cycle there is a period of action and then that period is followed by critical reflection. Ferrance (2000) at Brown University describes the steps in an action research project as a circle in which the researcher identifies the problem, gathers the data, interprets the data, acts on the conclusions, evaluates the results and then starts over until the desired result is achieved. In this continuous circle the research and the participants are continuously looking at the data.

One of the more frequent uses of action research is in the classroom and in schools. In one such research project the attendance officer at Oceana High School in Pacifica, California tracked the students who came through his office on a daily basis and soon learned that the majority of the repeat offenders were Latino. The attendance officer found that the letters being sent home were in English only and thus the families could not understand them. The school translated those letters to Spanish and he started to see fewer repeat offenders almost immediately (Cushman, 1999). When action research is discussed in education it is most often research done by a teacher with the hope of improving their skills for the future (Ferrance, 2000).

An action research project includes at least one, and probably more cycles of evaluation. It is also possible for the evaluation to become a research process on its own. This is called evaluation research. While it is not a stand-alone culture of inquiry, nor is it strictly action research, this type of study should be described here.

Evaluation Research

Garson (2008) writes that evaluation research is another research method (though it fits into a number of different methods) where the researcher objectively evaluates past, current, or proposed courses of action. In evaluation research there are three basic types of questions that can be answered. First the study could be a descriptive study, one in which the researcher describes the objectives, the procedures, the implementation, the anticipated outcomes, and describes the details of each. The second type of evaluation research would be the normative study. In this type of research the researcher evaluates the programs goals and objectives. The outcome of this research is to decide if the goals are valid; for example are they short term goals, long term goals, or are they too challenging or to minimal. The third type of evaluation research is an impact study. In this research the researcher evaluates the programs goals to determine the impact of the program on the client or stakeholder. This could be cost and benefits or long term-term and short-term impacts. Powell (2006) writes that evaluation is more likely to be used as a part of action research than as basic or theoretical research.

The project must be carefully planned and cannot be a loose set of surveys or other form of data collection. In their book Library Evaluation: A Casebook and Can-Do Guide, Wallace and Van Fleet (2001, pp. 4-5) suggest an “evaluation action plan”:

1. What’s the problem?

2. Why am I doing this?

3. What exactly do I want to know?

4. Does the answer already exist?

5. How do I find out?

6. Who’s involved?

7. What’s this going to cost?

8. What will I do with the data?

9. Where do I go from here?

Evaluation research uses a number of various tools as a part of the research project. These tools could be: surveys; case studies; field experiments; tests (standardized and locally developed); transaction log evaluation; assessments by participants; assessments by experts; interview; use records; citation analysis as well as other types of secondary data analysis (Powell, 2006). The evaluation research project could also contain a combination of these tools in order to complete the evaluation (Garson, 2008).

One example of evaluation research would be the evaluation of training programs. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) separate the evaluation of training programs into four levels: Reaction; Learning; Behavior; Results. These four levels measure the participants reaction to the program at the time of the training, the learning measures the skills or the learning that has taken place during the program, the behavior change is the participants change once the program is completed (what are the long term outcomes?), and the results is the measurement of the final outcome of the training (perhaps in increased productivity or keeping a job). By using these four levels of evaluation it is possible to evaluate the full circle of training. This includes the present form of training, the learning, and the changes to the participant in the future. The final report will take on many various forms but must be candid and independent.

Action research and evaluation research do not stand alone as a research method. It may include one or more cultures of inquiry into a research project. Over the next several pages I am going to describe a number of these cultures of inquiries. Before I do this I need to define “inquiry” and “culture of inquiry.”

While doing my research over the last few days I have had no choice but to observe the actions of my new kitten and our dog at “play.” I have concluded that inquiry has been present, probably in all life and is a natural tendency. My kitten does not know to “research” that the dog is bigger than her and can get annoyed after having his tail bitten a number of times, she just has the need to figure out what it is and chase it. She is inquisitive as well; if I leave a new door open, put a box down, or move a piece of furniture she must explore it. This behavior is the same behavior that is exercised by humans who participate in research and believe in the culture of inquiry. The difference is that the culture of inquiry is an organized method of doing research where my kittens’ method is trial and error.

According to Dr. Sharon L. Bender (2006), “a culture of inquiry is obligated to provide an opportunity for new and greater exploration, to provide a means to develop empirically-based approaches, to foster a sense of purpose for evaluation, and to demystify the evaluation process” (¶1). Using a culture of inquiry we humans, just like my kitten, are exploring new things, evaluating the answers, and we have the drive and the willingness to learn something new an unexpected. In academics and scholarly research there are several cultures of inquiry and all of them have their positive and negative points and some of them are more adaptable to a certain case or research project. Before beginning any social research project the researcher needs to understand the society and the roles of the people in the society. One of the ways to do this is by use of a culture of inquiry called “ethnography”.

Ethnography

According to Webster’s Dictionary “Ethnography” is the “branch of knowledge which has for its subject the characteristics of the human family, developing the details with which ethnology as a comparative science deals; descriptive ethnology” (ethnography, n.d.). The dictionary of anthropology takes this description a little further and says that ethnography is the study of an individual contemporary culture through fieldwork (Barfield, 2001). For the researcher this fieldwork often is the first of a two-stage research project. The fieldwork is designed for the researcher to study and observe the culture and the second part is the analysis of the observation and the development of a written description of the culture being studied (Laragy, 2006). The ethnographer uses science and methodology to research people.

According to Paul Atkinson and Martyn Hammersley (1983) ethnography has the following components:

• -.Attempts to uncover the nature of a particular social phenomenon.

• -.A tendency to work with small groups of people.

• -.The core analysis is centered on the meanings and functions of human actions.

• -.Priority is given to descriptions and explanations of events.

There are a few problems with ethnography and they have to do with the “world view” of the ethnographer. Vidich and Lyman (2000) write that “the observations of the ethnographer are always guided by world images that determine which data are relevant or not (p. 40).” An example of this was the early ethnographers’ interest towards the “primitive” peoples of the non-western worlds. The problem that the Westerners were confronted with was how to explain the presence of the Native American people with respect to the teachings of the Bible, which placed all people on the earth as decedents of “Noah”. According to Vidich and Lyman this judgment in values remains a problem for Western ethnographers. The question is asked “by which values are the observations guided? The values of the ethnographer or the values of the observed” (p. 41)?

Ethnography has continued to play an important role in the research of groups of society. James Spradley (1979) points out that ethnography helps the researcher understand human behavior and to understand complex society with larger cultural diversity. Additionally this understanding allows the researcher to understand and discover human needs. Then the researcher is able to begin to find ways to meet those needs.

Several examples of ethnographic research projects exist. One such project was James Marquart whom in 2001 went into the Texas prison system as a guard/researcher and did his observations while working. He immersed himself into the prison lifestyle and observed the social order, the guards, and prisoner discipline and control (Liamputtong, 2007). Another researcher using ethnography was Maggie O’Neil in 1996, who wanted to document the voices of those women working as prostitutes. She immersed herself in the culture for almost two years and she documented, sometimes through recordings and sometimes just through guided interviews, the life stories of the women working as prostitutes (Liamputtong, 2007). While doing her research Maggie O’Neil developed a trust with the women she was studying, this trust evolved over time and allowed her to gather these life stories.

Ethnographic research is centered on the observation and interpretation of a group of people. It requires immersion and interaction between the researcher and the subjects of the research. It would appear that the researcher has to be careful not to influence the subject’s behavior in any way as well as not become involved in illegal activities. In some cases ethnography could be similar to the work done by undercover detectives. Ethnography would be valuable to a researcher that is studying a group of people, such as low-income students and teachers in an urban school. The researcher could become a part of the environment perhaps as a teacher and observe by working within the system. The researcher would not be harming anyone, and may actually make a difference while doing his or her research.

Ethnography is a culture of inquiry that could fit into the planning stages of an action research project. A researcher could immerse him or herself into a culture, spend time with the people of that culture and then use the information gained from it to plan an action research project. Using ethnography as a part of an action research project, as a part of one of the cycles of activity followed by reflection and sometimes correction, would be difficult. Additionally for a researcher to make changes to a culture or population while conducting an ethnographic research project could possibly be considered unethical. Another way researchers can study a society or a group of people is to evaluate their writings, speeches and actions using the culture of inquiry called hermeneutics.

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is the study and interpretation of an object, such as art, text, a social action, or even the words of a speaker (Schwandt, 2001). In order to accomplish this the researcher must enter the culture or society, understand their language, understand their values and be a part of the goings on (Brannick, 2007). According to Schwandt (2001) the person who is considered the creator of modern hermeneutics is Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) and he defined hermeneutics “as the art of understanding practiced in reading classical, biblical, and legal texts” (p. 115). The culture of hermeneutics has been fragmented because of theoretical disputes into five sub-cultures: conservative hermeneutics, critical hermeneutics, deconstructionism, hermeneutics of suspicion, and philosophical hermeneutics.

Schwandt (2001) describes conservative hermeneutics as validation or objectivist hermeneutics. The theory of conservative hermeneutics is to validate the meaning the author embedded into their work. Italian historian Emilo Betti and Professor E.D. Hirsch are the principle advocates of this theory. They believed that the meaning of a text is fixed, and is an object that can be “depicted or portrayed accurately” (p. 29). In conservative hermeneutics the method of the research must prevent a misinterpretation of the work. Without proper method it may be possible for a researcher to read something into the text that is not accurate, based on the researchers bias or viewpoint.

Another faction of hermeneutics is critical hermeneutics or depth hermeneutics. Critical hermeneutics is based on the explanations of Karl Otto-Apel (1964) and Juergen Habermas (1967) along with several other critical theorists. The basis of critical hermeneutics comes from a skepticism of given meanings and interpretations. According to Schwandt (2001) there is also a suspicion of claims to truth and knowledge. A second thought behind critical hermeneutics is the thought that the translation (or identification) of the hidden meanings be undertaken for the betterment of society, and “emancipating individuals from false consciousness such that undistorted communication and non-ideological understandings can be realized” (p. 44).

Another type of hermeneutics is deconstructionism. Schwandt (2001) explains that deconstructionism is based on the idea that the Western world is very logocentric. What this means is that the Western cultures assume that words and language can be authoritative and disclose what is true and correct. The aim of deconstructionism is “not to decode a text to somehow reveal its meaning or truth but to displace or unsettle taken-for-granted concepts, such as the unity of the text, the meaning or message of the text, and the authorship of the text” (p. 53). The purpose of deconstructionism is not to reveal errors or to show the different interpretations of the work as that would show that there is a hidden truth.

Hermeneutics of suspicion is based on the suspicion of whatever is considered true. It shares the radical followers of deconstructionism and is based on the idea that all interpretations are false. According to Schwandt (2001) the goal of this form of hermeneutics is to “deconstruct – decipher, decode, or unmask – the reality or truth of the meanings of all notions or ideas that we take for granted and show these meanings to be entirely contingent and relative” (p. 116). This form of hermeneutics follows the path of deconstructionism as well.

Philosophical hermeneutics is the result of the work of Hans-Georg Gadamer (1960) who was critical of the view that hermeneutics was a method for generating knowledge. Philosophical hermeneutics is neither a method nor a methodology for obtaining truth. It is designed to be a tool for understanding of how a truth is communicated (Schwandt, 2001). This truth is not something that can be verified through the traditional sciences using a subject-object orientation. This understanding is open ended and Gadamer believed that one could never achieve a final interpretation. Scwandt (2001) writes, “philosophical hermeneutics also has been characterized as the hermeneutics of trust because it reflects the belief that meaning or truth will be found through interpretation modeled on dialogue and conversation” (p. 194).

Combining Hermeneutics with Action Inquiry

Hermeneutics and action-research are two separate cultures of inquiry, but they could possibly fit together in a single research project. For example, if one was to research the effect that the Bible has had on a Western society, or sub-culture, and the researcher’s goal was to improve living and social conditions for this society hermeneutics could be used to plan the research project and possibly identify an area of concern. Then action-research could be used to follow-up and perhaps do a second-stage of research that would work towards the goal of improving conditions based on the information gained from the hermeneutics. Another tie between action research and hermeneutics is found in the critical hermeneutics culture. In some research projects the research process can involve being a part of the society that is being researched so that they can seek the meanings behind the words and the actions of that group. In this case the researcher needs to be both a participant and an observer (Brannick, 2007).

Common to both ethnography and hermeneutics is the history of the society being studied. Without being aware of the history the researcher could misinterpret the results and in action research guide the study in the wrong direction. Besides history playing an important role in any research project historical research is a culture of inquiry on its own.

Historical

Historical research studies the past of a culture or society. This research is aimed at understanding the current trends by finding their roots in the past. According to the Historical Inquiry Project at Virginia Tech, “history is a way of organizing and explaining the past” (Doolittle & Hicks, & Ewing, 2004). In an interview published in the Cornell Chronicle Professor Micahael Kammen (2001) speaks to the importance of historical inquiry. He says that by studying history we can learn how and why changes occur over time. These changes can be political and cultural and we can learn where they come from and how they evolve. By understanding the value of the “primary source” be it an artifact, writing, or image we can understand its significance. Because all sources are not of equal value and many are inconsequential, historical inquiry can help us discern “which are the most important and why.” Understanding these values of the past can help us understand who we are in the present (Cornell Chronicle, 2001).

To properly evaluate the past as a part of historical inquiry the researcher must ask a guided historical question. This question is then investigated by using traces of the past as found in records, stories (verbal and written), documents, artwork and relics. It is important for the researcher to recognize that these records are both primary and secondary sources that are remains and traces from the past and that we do not have access to all of the material, there may be gaps. The researcher must try to understand the time, the people, and the circumstances these sources are from or they may be taken out of context. The researcher must also understand that these sources probably were not developed to be evidence of the past and they will need to be analyzed to draw the credible conclusions to answer the historical questions (Lee, 2005). The role of history can be one of understanding the past, the current, and possibly predicting the future. The role of history can also cause the researcher to dig deeper to answer the research question.

One such historical inquiry that has been written about would the to study the journals of the Lewis and Clark expeditions (1804-1806) in which Lewis and Clark set out to answer President Jefferson’s questions regarding the indigenous people, the plants, the wildlife, and the weather of the various regions they would pass through (Weeks, 2003). At the time of the expedition this research would have been considered ethnography but looking at this 200 years later a researcher can analyze the journals and the relics and create an understanding of the indigenous people, the plans, the wildlife, and the weather through the eyes of the writers. Based on this understanding it may be possible to use history as a part of action research/inquiry.

Combining Historical Research and Active Inquiry

The historical research or inquiry could be used to answer background questions and gain an understanding of the society or peoples being studied. An example of this link may be found in the aforementioned Lewis and Clark expedition. If a researcher wanted to study the indigenous peoples of the Northwest and the goal were to improve living conditions and prevent disease an understanding of the people prior to the involvement of the western settlers may be necessary. The writings of Lewis and Clark would give a hint to what life used to be like prior to the colonists arrival. Once the researchers understood the people in their past, unspoiled form, they could move on and study the years since. They would have to study the effects of being forced onto reservations, being discriminated against, and being treated at times like slaves. The researchers would also have to study the history of education and health care. Then the researchers would have to live among the people and begin to work with them to improve their lives through education, healthcare and training. Without the history this action research project would fail.

When researchers are looking at history they must collect and analyze the data. They must be able to link the past to the present with a statement like, “X occurred then Y is the outcome.” To do this the researcher may use correlational research either by itself, or along with another method of inquiry.

Correlation

One of the most common and useful statistics is a correlation, which uses a single number to “describe the relationship between two variables” (Trochim, 2006, ¶1). This is put into research terms in the book Research Methods in Physical Activity where authors Jerry Thomas, Jack Nelson, and Stephen Silverman (2005) define correlation research as exploring relationships. Correlation research is designed to collect data on two or more variables and then to determine the relationship between the variables. The variables are not manipulated; the results are not influenced in any way by the researchers actions. Thomas, Nelson, and Silverman also point out that one of the most important portions of correlation research is the selection of the variables. They liken it to the old saying, “garbage in, garbage out” meaning if one does not start gathering the correct information one may end up with worthless data at the end of the study.

Professor Magdalene Chalikia (2008) of the Psychology Department at the University of Minnesota explains that we can use correlations to make predictions, demonstrate the validity of measures, determine reliability and to validate predictions used by theories. Professor Chalikia goes on to write that there are three characteristics of the correlational relationship. These characteristics are: direction, degree, and form. The direction could be a positive or a negative result, the degree is a measure of the strength of the relationship, and the form describes if the relationship is linear or not. Heffner (2003) further defines the degree of the relationship as intensity. Intensity is measured with a number between 0 and 1 where 0 means no relationship (or correlation) and 1 means a perfect relationship (or correlation). The direction is either a positive or a negative. A positive correlation means that both variables tend to move in one direction, as one goes up so does the other. A negative correlation means that the variables move in opposite directions and as one goes up the other goes down.

Chalikia (2008) writes about some of the problems with correlational research. One of these problems is the direction of the cause and effect, the researcher may identify a relationship between two variables but has no way of knowing which one caused the other. This goes back to the old question of “which came first, the chicken or the egg?” Another problem with correlation research that Chalikia identifies is that some other uncontrolled variables may be responsible for the measured relationship between the two selected variables.

Correlations are most often tracked in scatter charts where every subject’s data is placed onto a grid with the X axis being one variable and the Y axis being a second variable. If a cluster of the points is seen a line can be drawn following the cluster to show a relationship and the intensity of the relationship. An example of this relationship can be seen in Figure 1. The first scatter chart shows a positive relationship where as one variable increases so does the second. Additionally since the line of points is relatively straight there is a high intensity to this correlation. The next scatter chart (middle top row) shows no correlation between any of the points. The third (right on top row) shows a negative correlation or direction; when one variable increases the others decrease. The points on this third diagram are also arranged in a straight line showing a high intensity to this correlation. The two charts on the bottom row show a positive and negative direction with slightly lower intensities, meaning the relationship is not as strong.

Figure 1. Various scatter plots and degrees of intensities (Source: Heffner, 2003).

A search on Google of “correlation research” returns over 29,500,000 results. Most of these are studies that have been done using correlational research. Many of these are in the medical fields and some are social or educational. A few likely studies for correlational research could be:

• • o.A comparison of High School grades to College Grades.

  • o.A comparison of High School grades to hours spent in kindergarten.

  • o.A study of an Olympic athletes speed versus the pollution content of the air.

  • o.A study of cigarettes smoked per day versus years lived.

  • o.A comparison of a family’s income versus a student’s enrollment in college.

In any of the above the researcher would have to make sure that he or she does not attempt to link the relationship as a cause and effect. In other words a researcher could not say that the dirty air affected an Olympic athlete because there may be outside influences such as the effect of training, and strength. A correlation can suggest a cause and effect relationship but it cannot prove one exists.

Correlation in Action Inquiry

Correlation can be a part of action research projects because it is about data collection and analysis. If we look back at the initial action research steps that are: identifying the problem, gathering data, interpreting the data, acting on the evidence, and evaluating the results (Ferrance, 2000), we find that data collection and analysis are important parts of the process. If a school district wanted to increase High School grades and wanted to work on this from the time the child enrolled in primary school, data may be collected to determine the correlation between high school grades and hours spent in kindergarten. This project would take nine years before the first set of data could be correlated but assuming the school district varied the hours spent in the kindergarten classroom on a yearly basis over this nine years, the school could see a correlation almost 18 years later. This would be a long study that could show that an increase of grades is based on the hours spent in kindergarten. This would not be a proof as there may be other factors involved such as generation, teachers, curriculum and more.

Another action research project using correlation would be to try and raise test scores in a vocational education program by altering the time spent in the shop versus the classroom. The two variables would be “test scores” and “hours in shop” while the students in the class would be the subjects. The instructor would be actively involved in the study by changing, over a period of time, the hours spent in the shop then tracking and analyzing the results and then adjusting the hours to achieve the best performance.

There is another culture of inquiry that uses correlation as one of its research tools; this is the culture of “grounded theory” which I am going to discuss next.

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is a methodology that is used to develop theoretical ideas using data. Grounded theory is a specific, highly developed, and rigorous set of procedures for collecting and analyzing data aimed at producing formal and substantive theories of social phenomena (Schwandt, 2001). Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss introduced grounded theory in their book The Discovery of Grounded Theory (1967). The premise behind grounded theory was that theories could not be altered and changed if it is hard set in data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Glaser and Strauss write, “grounded theory can help forestall the opportunistic use of theories that have dubious fit and working capacity” (p. 4). They go on to describe empirical studies where the author has “tacked on” from a “logically deduced theory” (p. 4). In this way the author tries to give his data additional meaning because he has been unable to generate a theory from his own data. Grounded theory is a method for “systematically collecting and interpreting data through a process which offers clear and precise guidelines for the verification and validation of findings” (Goulding, 2002, p. 41). The theory develops itself during the research process and is a result of the continuous cycle of data collection and analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Goulding writes that the data collection and analysis continues, “until no further evidence emerges” (p. 44) or to the point of saturation. This verification process caused a split in grounded theory between Glaser and Strauss that became evident in Strauss and Corbin’s book Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory (1998). Goulding (2002) explains that Strauss and Corbin’s version of grounded theory incorporates a strict, highly complex and systematic method of coding techniques while Glaser “stresses the interpretive, contextual and emergent nature of theory development” (p. 47).

In both methods of grounded theory research, the researcher collects data from events observed, actions observed, recorded interviews, and documents then analyzes this data to look for similarities and differences. According to Schwandt (2001) the researcher then begins to uncover constants in the data and in this process develops tentative theories (or theoretical propositions). These propositions are then explored through further data collection and evaluation that is guided by these tentative theories. The theory determines the direction of the sampling. The sampling and evaluation of the data continues until “theoretical saturation is reached (i.e., additional analysis no longer contributes to anything new about a concept). In this way, the resulting theory is considered conceptually dense and grounded in the data” (pp. 110-111). Charmaz (2000) writes that the Strauss method also attempts to give a “voice to their respondents by representing them as accurately as possible and discovering and acknowledging how respondents’ views of reality conflict with their own” (p. 510).

Grounded theory research has several overlapping phases. First comes data-collection, which can occur, via observations, interviews, and focus groups. The next phase is note-taking, Dick (2005) recommends against taking notes in the midst of an interview or observation, he does recommend jotting down or remembering keywords to make the next phase of grounded theory research, coding easier. Coding follows note taking. Dick writes that during the coding phase the researcher takes a sentence and analyzes it looking to identify keywords. Starting with the first interview the researcher will code it, and then the researcher will code the second interview by comparing it with the first. Dick recommends continuing to use comparison as the remainders of the interviews are coded, all while keeping an emerging theory in mind. Eventually these coded interviews will develop into categories and properties.

Dick (2005) writes that the categories and properties are considered a theme or a variable that is interpreted in light of the research, other interviews and the emerging theory. After a time, and a number of interviews the researcher may begin to identify a reoccurring category or theme. These reoccurring themes become core categories. Saturation is reached when the data-collection and coding do not reveal anything new about a category, its properties (or variables) or the core category. Dick explains that once saturation for a category is reached the researcher stops coding for that category.

Memoing is a part of the process, and Dick (2005) writes that it must receive a high priority. He writes that, “in effect, a memo is a note to yourself about some hypothesis that you have about a category or a property, and particularly about relationships between categories” (Memoing, ¶1).

Following data collection, coding and memoing the researcher must sort the data into relationships. While Dick (2005) explains that he uses 3×5 cards and a large table or the floor there is now computer software to make this sorting easier. After the sorting comes the writing up. Dick writes that if the coding and sorting process is done properly the writing process is a matter of typing the cards (or categories) into an orderly fashion.

Grounded Theory in Action Inquiry

Since grounded theory includes repeated sampling, analysis and study of data it can become a part of an action research project. One such research project was conducted by Eli Teram, Candice L. Schachter, and Carol A. Stalker (2005). In their paper, “The Case for Integrating Grounded Theory and Participatory Action Research: Empowering Clients to Inform Professional Practice” they described the process. The study was designed to explore the experiences of the female survivors of sexual abuse when they are exposed to physical therapy. The outcome of this research was to develop a handbook for the health professionals to be sensitive to the needs to these patients. The reason grounded theory and action research was combined was: “(a) the need to produce knowledge that is relevant to and acceptable by the professional community and (b) a consideration of the power differentials between the survivors and the professionals” (p. 1131). The use of grounded theory research allowed a theory to be built from the data and allowed for further exploration. The action portion of the study was to develop the handbook to help the physical therapy professionals be more sensitive to the population.

This study was completed in three phases. In the first phase the researchers interviewed 27 women who were survivors of childhood sexual abuse and who have received physical therapy. The interviews were not guided and concentrated on the issues raised by the participants. They went where they went. The data was analyzed using a constant comparative method and this in turn guided the ongoing interview process. The researchers then used the patterns that arose to form a theory regarding the survivors’ experiences and their ideas for sensitive practices. The research team also sent each participant a summary of the data and the interpretation and was invited to respond (Schachter, Stalker, & Teram, 2005).

The second phase of the study began the development of this handbook by the use of participatory action research methods. The original survivors met monthly with the physical therapists and applied the learning from phase 1. The groups then used their feedback to refine the recommendations.

The third phase of the study was solicitation comments from those not involved in phase 1 or 2. This included counselors working with survivors. academics, regulatory bodies, and professional associations. The study then generated a final draft of the Handbook on Sensitive Practice for Health Professionals (Schachter, Stalker, et al., 2001). The outcome was an action research project that used grounded theory study for collecting and analyzing information and participatory active research for solving a real life problem.

One possible problem with grounded theory is the need to continue to collect data in a non-perfect world until the researcher develops the final theory. In the case we just discussed the data could become skewed if one of the health professionals left, if a participant moved, or if someone was just having a “bad day.” The world is not a perfect place and things happen. One way that has attempted to resolve this problem and lower the risk of outside influences affecting the data is to move the research into the laboratory environment and do experimental research.

Experimental Research

Experimental research in the social sciences, which involve removing the participants from the natural surroundings and controlling every aspect of interaction and life surrounding the research first appeared in around 1900 and grew fastest since the end of the Second World War (Webster & Sell, 2007). “Experiments are most useful when investigating predictions derived from explicit theories, and it is theories, rather than experimental results that are properly applied to explain functions of natural settings” (p. 5). Because of this, every research project does not lend itself to experimentation; in the example of Grounded Theory or Correlation the initial research and data pool may be too wide to be effective in a laboratory, or the theory may not be developed yet.

Webster and Sell (2007) describe some advantages and disadvantages of experimentation. First the primary advantage is that it is artificial. The researcher can observe the participants in an environment that he or she has designed and is completely independent of nature. The second advantage of experimentation is that the research conditions are artificially designed and this allows replication. An experiment running today can be repeated years from now either with the same variables or perhaps with a new variable to compare the changes. A third benefit of experimentation is also surrounds the artificial environment. Having the artificial environment allows the researchers to create conditions that would be very difficult to find in nature. Perhaps the weather, the participants, and the time may not all be together in nature at the same time.

Along with the advantages there are also some disadvantages. One of these is that experimentation is artificial; it eliminates nature and the randomness of nature. Experiments are not relative (they do not mirror) a real population under real circumstances. They cannot duplicate the complexities of a real situation. For example they cannot duplicate the interaction between the students, the equipment, and the instructors in a vocational shop. There are far to many variables.

According to Webster and Sell (2007) experimentation takes place in four “blocks” which are: foundation, abstract design, operations, and interpretations. The foundation is the theory and the reasons behind the experiment. The foundation is the “Why are we doing this?” The abstract design phase (or block) is the plan of the research or experiment. This abstract design phase includes all the dependent and independent variables of the experiment. The abstract design answers the main question of “How can I design a situation to answer the previous research questions” (p. 15)? The operations block is the actual experiment, someone (or a group) is participating in the experiment and researchers are observing. The variables are measured and the participant interaction is observed. The interpretation of the experiment is the outcome. The interpretation should answer the question “What have we learned?” The interpretation could support or disprove a theory or methodology.

Experimentation in Action Research

Experimentation in active research is difficult. Action research is described as a researcher being a part of the process. The experimental process removes itself from the field and goes into a laboratory. Experimentation also does not lend itself to guiding the participants towards social change.

Experimentation could be used to prove a concept or theory found in active research. In other words if the end of an active research project results in a theory an experiment could be developed to prove that this theory is grounded and can be duplicated in the future. Experimentation could prove a theory, but experimentation could not be used to develop the theory in an active research project.

Occasionally there are research questions that need answered or theories that may need to be supported that do not lend themselves to duplication in the “real world” or in the laboratory. They may be historical or “one-time” only events. They may surround events that were harmful to human beings that would be unethical to duplicate. Researchers can study these events by using case studies.

Case Studies

A case study is a research (or evaluation method) that does not study variables. The case study studies cases. In his book Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Yin (2003) writes, “In general case studies are the preferred strategy when ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context” (p. 1). The Dictionary of Sociology defines case study as:

The detailed examination of a single example of a class of phenomena, a case study cannot provide reliable information about the broader class, but it may be useful in the preliminary stages of an investigation since it provides hypotheses, which may be tested systematically with a larger number of cases. (Abercrombie, et al., 1984, p34)

According to Bent Flyvbjerg (2004) this definition is one of the misunderstandings about case studies that have sometimes put them at a lower academic standard than other research. Flyvbjerg writes about five misunderstandings about case studies that exist. These are:

Misunderstanding 1: General theoretical (context-independent) knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge.

Misunderstanding 2: One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development.

Misunderstanding 3: The case study is not useful for generating hypotheses, that is, in the first stage of a total research process, while other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory-building.

Misunderstanding 4: The case study contains a bias towards verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researchers preconceived notions.

Misunderstanding 5: It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies (p. 421).

In his paper, “Five Misunderstandings about Case Studies” Flyvbjerg explains that all of these misunderstandings are false, and in fact the opposite is true. Case studies provide a valid, scientific approach to research.

There are six steps to most case studies. The six steps are (Soy, S., 1997):

1. 1.Determine and define the research questions.

2. 2.Select the cases and determine the data gathering and analysis techniques.

3. 3.Prepare to collect the data.

4. 4.Collect the data in the field.

5. 5.Evaluate and analyze the data.

6. 6.Prepare the report.

One of the key strengths of using case studies is that it can use multiple cases and multiple sources. These multiple sources may be results of different research studies and different researchers. They may employ different research methodologies or artifacts. The case study researcher determines in advance what data to gather and the methods for gathering this data. The researcher must be careful to design validity into the research project by being unbiased in their evaluation and interpretation of the data as well as their case selection.

Case Studies in Action Research

Case study research and methodology can fit along with action research. Case studies can be used in the planning stage, in the research, as well in the evaluation at the end of a action/evaluation cycle. The case study can be also used as a comparison for the ongoing action/evaluation process. One such research project was completed by a student at United Theological Seminary in 1999. Carroll (1999) studied the spiritual development among inner city African American youth, with the goal of enhancing the spiritual growth of the young people in the community. The research portion of the project was to determine if a small group model would aid the young people in strengthening the social aspects of their lives. The research began as an action research project and culminated in a case study. It then began a second phase that developed a new curriculum.

Homeless Link in London along with Tribal Consulting completed another study that used action research and case study. This research studied the barriers in engaging homeless drug users in structured treatment programs. The study showed that despite the barriers that the homeless drug users face the existing resources could overcome many of them (Evans, 2007).

While grounded theory and correlation are linked to hard data and case studies can be linked to a particular circumstance, action or case there is another type of qualitative researcher that is based on perceived reality. This method of inquiry is phenomenology.

Phenomenology

The American Heritage Dictionary defines phenomenology as “a philosophy or method of inquiry based on the premise that reality consists of objects and events as they are perceived or understood in human consciousness and not of anything independent of human consciousness” (phenomenology, n.d.). This is culture of inquiry was originated around 1905 by Edmund Husserl (phenomenology, n.d.). Letiche (2006) writes, “Husserl’s intention was to escape psychological relativism – that is, the claim that all thought is mere thinking, or so many mental processes, or merely complex forms of relatedness” (p. 7). In more modern times phenomenology has “become the principle source for recognizing the relatedness of consciousness and subjectivity, and now champions the (near) indefinable inter-space wherein self and world emerge” (p. 7).

Phenomenology or phenomenological research is a growing trend in the health arena. Phenomenology is based upon philosophy; it looks at not at the science of an object or an idea; it transcends that science and looks at the “being.” This is based on the idea that phenomenology captures the stories and is narrative in nature (Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). Schwandt (2001) writes that the phenomenological researcher normally rejects the ideas of scientific realism and the beliefs that “the empirical sciences have a privileged position in identifying and explaining features of a mind independent world” (p. 191). The phenomenologist insists on detailed accountings and descriptions of everyday life experiences and things as one experiences them and calls this the “life-world.” These everyday experiences are important because phenomenology rejects the idea that true understanding can only be gained by “rejecting the way we perceive the world of everyday life as ‘mere appearance’” (p. 191). Wilding and Whiteford (2005) point out that in research phenomenology is a way to study phenomena that are typically difficult to measure or observe using traditional research methods.

With phenomenology there is not a true methodology, rather the data speaks for itself. The data may guide the research in a new direction and the researcher needs to follow the data. Phenomenological research is reflective and holistic in nature. The thoughts and the words of the research participants or subjects are treated with integrity and this defines the “life-world” of the research (Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). Having said that there is not a true methodology does not mean that there are not components to the methodology. Heidegger (1927) defines the three basic components of phenomenology: reduction, construction and destruction. Heidegger says that phenomenology believes that the society we live in is a construction and that all the theories and methods humans have created is also a construction, thus to truly understand the being we must see beyond these constructions and see the being. Phenomenological reduction is the process of moving from the vision of a being (which is the basis of phenomenology) to the true understanding of the being in symbols (or mathematically). Orleans (n.d.) writes, “a phenomenological reduction both plummets to the essentials of the notion and ascertains its meanings independent of all particular occasions of its use. The reduction of a bracketed phenomenon is thus a technique to gain theoretical insight into the meaning of elements of consciousness” (¶7). The process of deconstruction essentially reverses the construction process that is essential to phenomenology (Dickens & Fontana, 1994).

The culture of phenomenology is not a single culture. It includes the “transcendual phenomenology of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), the existential forms of Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961) and Jean Paul Sarte (1905-1980) and the hermeneutic phenomenology of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)” (Schwandt, 2001, p. 191).

An example of research, which lends itself to a phenomenological approach, would be to research spirituality. Spirituality must be seen through the eyes of the people experiencing it and their words and thoughts must drive the research. The researcher can attempt to interpret these descriptions but they cannot ignore them to get at a concrete scientific “truth” (Wilding & Whiteford, 2005).

Phenomenology and Action Inquiry

Phenomenology can play an important role in qualitative action research or active inquiry. One of the best examples I can think of would be a research study in New Orleans post-Katrina. This study would look at the renewal of the social groups of the Ninth Ward. The research would try and determine would could be done to improve the life of those returning to the neighborhoods. This research could not be based on scientific (or empirical) data or facts. This study would need to be reflective, back to the time of the hurricane; it would need to record and describe the stories and the “world” of the people at that time. It would need to describe the feelings and the thoughts, all those things that make people human. It would need to describe and tell the story of the return of some of the residents and their feelings through the rebuilding of the neighborhoods. It would need to show their frustrations, their actions and their reflections. It would need to tell their “life-world” and perhaps the research would take on a new direction as time went on. This would just be the data collection phase.

The active phase of this would be to share the stories and reflections, with credibility to those telling the stories. Perhaps using the lessons learned to make it easier for others to follow in the footsteps of those already back. Perhaps the stories would lend themselves to future disaster planning as well. Either way, this is an event that pure science cannot begin to address by itself.

Conclusion

Research methods and cultures of inquiry are not “set in stone.” The researcher must be able to select the best method of inquiry for the question being asked. The validity of the study, the role of the researcher, and the role of the participants must all be taken into account.

Some of the methodologies I have looked at would be a part of most action research projects, such as correlation for data analysis. Some of the more philosophical research methodologies such as phenomenology will allow the researcher in an action research project to look closer at the participants’ feelings, visions and beliefs and possibly take a more holistic approach to the research. Methodologies such as grounded theory allow the researcher to build a “hard case” for a theory. Case studies, historical research, and hermeneutics allow the researcher to look at written, spoken, and other evidence to form opinions or theories.

It may be possible that the best and most thorough research projects are completed when not only one methodology is used but when there are multiple methodologies being used correctly. Having identified and discussed some of the various existing research methodologies, I am now going to look specifically at Vocational Education studies done using grounded theory, correlation, case study, experimental, and evaluation research. For each research project I will then evaluate it based on the validity of the research, the social and educational change that it has the capability of instigating, and the possibility for further research.

Research in Vocational Education

Evaluation Based Research

One method of evaluation is the use of before and after skills testing, or the use of standardized tests to measure the outcome of a class or variation of a program. This is the method of evaluation research that was used by Howard Solomon and Robert Perez from Florida State University in their 2002 study, “A Comparison of Two Corrective Feedback Methods in Computer-Based Training for Vocational Education Students.” The study looked at the addition of “bells and whistles” to the feedback of computer based training and evaluated if it made any difference to the retention of the feedback received by the student. The alternative to the bells and whistles was the plain message box with an “OK” button that allowed the student to move on.

Solomon and Perez (2002) write that the rationale for the study was that the vocational classroom has changed and computers have found their way into almost every classroom and have begun to play an important part in the training process. In 2002 Solomon found that according to vocational education directors 38% of vocation education is being delivered to the students via computer. A large portion of the learning that occurs through computer-based training is the feedback that the student receives. Gagne, Briggs, and Wager (1992) point out that feedback is a critical part of an instructional experience. They also write that the type of feedback must be guided by the circumstances surrounding the instruction and that because of this it is not possible to write guidelines around the proper use of feedback. Almost any form of feedback delivery is appropriate as long is informs the learner about their performance. Other scholars, such as Alessi and Trollip (2001) suggest that the feedback must be of a high quality before it will increase the learners’ performance for the future.

The Solomon and Perez research split 27 vocational education students that were enrolled in a computer and electronics repair program in March 2002 into two groups. The age ranges of the participants were from 14 to adult and all participants were male. Sixteen of the group was white, 8 were black, and 3 were from other racial backgrounds. The students were asked to take a computer based training simulation to disassemble and reassemble a CD player using two different versions of software. The only visible difference between the two versions was in the way feedback was presented. For 14 of these students the feedback was animated on the screen and the other 13 had feedback that was presented as a text box when incorrect tool choices were made. Another difference in the software was not visible to the students, the addition of a tracking system that recorded tool selection in the background. Records were kept for each student on the number of tool choice errors.

At the completion of the testing the mean number of errors that the students with the animation had was only slightly lower than the mean number of errors of the students with the text boxes. However the mean last error step for those with the animation was later in the process that those with the text box. The implication of this research study revealed that the addition of the animations, the graphics, and other such “bells and whistles” did little to enhance the learning outcome for this group of students. Solomon and Perez (2002) go on to write that quality feedback is valuable based on content rather than how it is presented. They conclude their research by writing, “when working with motivated learners, there is little to be gained by implementing gimmicks for learning-enhancement purposes, who’s value is likely to be in the area of motivation” (p. 4).

This research used the testing and tracking of the computer based training program to evaluate the performance of the two groups of students based on feedback. The results of this study may save school districts large amounts of money that would otherwise be used to add “bells and whistles” to computer software. In the program I teach it may cause me to re-evaluate the updating of my classroom computers to add more bells and whistles. I may take the money saved and add more equipment to the shop. This is one example of the value of evaluative research in vocational education.

Evaluation of Research

While the study Solomon and Perez (2002) had concluded that the type of feedback the student received did not matter; there were several shortcomings and room for discussion in their research. First, the study mixed students of various age groups, social and ethnic backgrounds. This mixture did not account for the differences in technical aptitude of the students. An example of this would be a 17 year old who has grown up with video games and been exposed to computers from an early age playing a Playstation game against a 45 year old who had to learn these skills in later life. The 17 year old will have the skills to compete. Tracking the research by age groups or cultural backgrounds may have shown some additional correlations between age and type of feedback that made the most impact.

Another shortcoming of this study is the population of the subject pool. Twenty-seven students is not a large group and other aspects of the experiment could easily influence this group. For example if this group is from one class, and has had one instructor the group may have been trained to expect feedback in a certain manner. Including a wider population, from various schools or instructors could help resolve this question.

I believe that the Solomon and Perez (2002) study open the door to further research on the types of feedback that students receive in computer-based training but does not answer any real questions or develop a theory. Perhaps in the future a researcher may take the hypothesis, “It does not matter what the appearance of the feedback a student receives through computer-based training as learning is based on the motivation of the student” and develop a larger study to prove the theory.

Another study completed by Barbara Szlovak and Peter Labudde (2003) at the University of Bern in Switzerland looked at the acceptance of Interdisciplinary Education (IE) by the faculty during vocational education teacher training. The researchers note that vocational education plays an important role in the Swiss educational system since over 60% of Swiss adolescents attend a vocational school. The researchers go on to describe the role of IE in the new curriculum for these vocational schools. The researchers focused on two research questions: “First, how can the quality of teacher education with respect to interdisciplinary instruction be increased? Second, what kind of training programs for in-service teachers and teacher-students are powerful and sustainable” (p. 1)?

The research was done in two phases, the first phase consisted of interviewing 26 teachers and the interviews were transcribed. The analysis focused on curricula and existing training programs with respect to IE. The second phase of the study had 18 teachers participate in five training programs during a single school year. The teachers worked to develop interdisciplinary units in small teams and put them into practice. The researchers had the teachers fill out a questionnaire at the start of the study which asked questions about the teachers attitude towards IE, their educational styles in regards to IE, and the factors making the implementation of IE difficult. At the end of the second phase, following the teachers training and development the teachers completed another questionnaire. This questionnaire evaluated the teacher’s development and change of attitude regarding the IE training.

The Swiss IE study did not draw any direct conclusions but was used as an active research project that developed two guides for teachers regarding the implementation of IE. The research also showed that the development of IE units is difficult because of the lack of time and school organization as well as a lack of appropriate infrastructure (Szlovak, B. & Labudde, P., 2003). This research is not complete and the researchers note that it will take time to see the full outcome. It is too early to draw conclusions.

Evaluation of Research

This research study came very close to using the four levels of evaluation described by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) in their writings. The evaluation looked at the teachers’ attitude towards IE at the start of the training. The researchers interviewed and interacted with the teachers during the training, and evaluated the change of behavior at the end of the training. The researchers then took the information gained during the yearlong project and made it active by creating training materials and guides to be used by others in the future.

Research is most valuable if it does something to improve the future for others. The Szlovak and Labudde (2003) Swiss IE study accomplished something by developing training materials and a training guide for future teachers. The teachers being grouped together to work in small groups and to be active participants in the research was a valuable step. The groups allowed them to share problems and concerns as well as focus on an end product. If the teachers had been allowed to work individually the outcome may have been far different as each one may have had their own agenda that may not have taken others needs into account.

Effectiveness of Evaluation in Vocational Education

The two previously discussed research projects are completely different from each other but both occurred in a vocational or technical program. The first looked at the student’s response to feedback as a part of the training and evaluated learning. The second study looked at teacher’s attitudes and training outcome regarding a new curriculum. Each occurred in two different countries and cultures; the first in Florida, U.S.A and the second in Bern, Switzerland. The use of evaluation in both studies was aimed at gauging a response to an action or a series of actions. The first gauged the response by testing and tracking the students’ actions; the second through the use of before and after questionnaires and interviews with the participants. It appears that evaluation in both studies was an effective way to capture the data that was needed for the research and in the second study to take action in the form of further training.

Grounded Theory Research

While evaluative research in education is frequent and easy to find based on the standardized testing, and atmosphere of achievement created by “No Child Left Behind,” grounded theory research is much more difficult to find. It appears that education is a fast changing world and with each generation comes new theories and new approaches. Most seem not to lend themselves to grounded theory research.

Victor Lofgreen (1983) a student at Nebraska State University used grounded theory research to explain the relationship between employability of offenders in the Lincoln Post Care Unit of the Nebraska Department of Corrections too the education of these offenders while in state custody. Lofgreen’s research followed the employment history of 15 released offenders and used interviews and biographies to link them back to the vocational/technical training in prison. The subjects were all adult male offenders; females and youthful offenders were excluded. They were all past residents of the Lincoln Post Care Unit. The information used was available from the subjects, their employers, and a classification study of the subjects completed by the institution staff.

Lofgreen (1983) started with the assumption that participation in vocational programs by offenders while in prison increased the likelihood of employment in a trade upon release. He also worked under the assumption that employment once back in the community is important as it prevents re-incarceration. Finally he assumed that participation in prison vocational and educational programs while in prison increase the success of the released offender when back in the community.

The method to his research was a combination of literature reviews, interviews, and classification study reviews. Lofgreen (1983) describes the study procedure as being broken down into seven parts:

1. 1.A literature review was conducted to look for variables that might have assisted him in finding correlation between education and employment.

2. 2.Lofgreen then scheduled the interviews with prison officials, the employers, the offenders, and the community job placement people whom all had a part of the education and the employment of the offender. During this step Lofgreen also created a form, based on the prior step, to aid in data collection during the interviews.

3. 3.Lofgreen completed the interviews as well as the study of the classifications and biographical data. The data was all numerically encoded to protect the privacy of the individuals being studied.

4. 4.The encoded information was compared. If two-thirds of the subjects had similar data the data was considered to be a characteristic of the group.

5. 5.The data was then submitted to a two member jury to review the classifications and the resulting characteristics to guard against bias by the researcher.

6. 6.Lofgreen then compared the resulting characteristics of the offenders to the characteristics found in other studies of employment and training in prison.

7. 7.The propositions and recommendations that where the result of this study was based on these common characteristics.

Lofgreen (1983) completed the study of the 15 offenders and writes the following “Summary of Major Findings:”

1. 1.Offenders are distinguishable from the general population only because they come from the low end of the socio-economic strata of society and they have been convicted of a felony criminal offense.

2. 2.Offenders have employment experience before going to prison and are employed following prison.

3. 3.Offenders experience a downward mobility in socio-economic status when compared to their fathers and hold aspirations to occupations with higher soci-economics status then the occupations held by their fathers.

4. 4.Offenders are able to meet the performance standards necessary to complete the G.E.D. diploma and vocations education certificate and diploma requirements.

5. 5.The completion of G.E.D. diploma and vocational education certificate and diploma requirements had no effect upon the level or type of employment of offenders following prison.

6. 6.Employers seek employees who have acceptable work habits and expect to train people in work tasks on the job.

7. 7.Employers are willing to hire offenders who have had prior work experience and are recommended by an advocate from the prison staff.

8. 8.The Parole Board is instrumental in requiring offenders to participate in education programs in prison.

9. 9.The Parole Board, staff, and offenders hold the belief that improvement in educational achievement will contribute to employment of offenders released from prison.

10. 10.Offenders participated in education to satisfy the Parole Board and too improve their chances of being employed following prison (pp. 70-71).

Lofgreen (1983) found that there was no direct link between the education of the offenders and the type of employment that they gained after release from prison. Lofgreen also noted that other research had reported the same findings. Additionally Lofgreen found that the education alone was unlikely to be the key to parole success and that employment potential may be linked more closely too the availability of jobs in the occupation that the prisoner had training in upon their release from prison. Lofgreen writes, “traditional students in other post-secondary education programs face the same circumstances after graduation” (p. 72).

Lofgreen (1983) notes that his study is small scale research and should be viewed as an indication rather than a conclusion. He writes that further research in this area may be needed to conclusively disprove the correlation between education in prison and successful employment upon release.

Evaluation of Research

I found Lofgreens’ (1993) study to be extremely interesting since the vocational program that I supervise has a large number of parolee’s enrolled in it. We have also found that the employment and the success of the graduates has nothing to do with the training that they have received; it has more to do with the motivation of the individual and other job searching skills such as appearance and the availability of such jobs.

Unlike the Solomon and Perez (2002) study Lofgreen held his population pool to some closer standards. He excluded the younger and female offenders. This allowed him to narrow the focus of his research closer to the main question of the effect of vocational education during incarceration improved the chance of employment following release.

Lofgreen (1983) admits that his research did not create a grounded theory but only an indication of one. While the results of his research are interesting there is just still too much unknown to draw a solid conclusion. This research should be an important discussion point for those who are developing and following vocational training programs in prisons. There appears to be a missing link between these programs and success in the job market. The motivation for the offenders appears to be centered on impressing the parole board and the parole board may not be looking at what actually happens to the offenders upon release, as it is no longer their responsibility. There seems to be a disconnect between the two that perhaps further research could solve.

There are other grounded theory research projects that have studied vocational education more directly. One such study, A Grounded Theory of Essential Attributes of Quality Education-for-Work Curriculum was completed in 1997 by Margaret Ellibee. This study was designed to provide an answer to two research questions: “a) From a practitioner perspective what are the essential attributes of a quality education for work program? B) How do these attributes, in conjunction with content, pedagogy, student assessment, and equity considerations produce a grounded theory of education-for-work curriculum” (p. 2)? The thought behind these questions was the appearance of a lack of standards for education to work programs that are “haphazard, often disconnected, curriculum based on very localized or nationalized guides and texts” (p. 2).

Ellibee (1997) used four school sites to include in her research. The school sites were chosen based on the length of time the school was established (must have been established for at least five years), the school linked academic and occupational studies, integrated secondary and postsecondary education, and developed a close linkage between school and work. The schools studied needed to be nationally based in order to eliminate the state-specific influences on curriculum. Ellibee also made an effort to select programs with diverse foci, such as industrial technology, health occupations, agricultural, and business. Finally Ellibee also made sure that any site selected was reviewed for prior studies and research. If research on the site was found it was examined and any pertinent information was collected.

Once the initial planning was complete, each site was visited and data was collected via a series of taped interviews of instructors, administrators, and students. The instructors and students were given the majority of the focus. According to Ellibee (1997) the following questions were used to guide the interviews:

1. 1.What does the term quality education for work curriculum embrace within the educational program?

2. 2.What are the components or attributes of quality education for work curriculum?

3. 3.How do you [the instructor] present these attributes?

4. 4.What is the evaluation of such attributes?

After the fourth visit to the school sites it was determined that “theoretical saturation was taking place and additional school visits would merely contribute to repeating data” (p. 4). The data was then encoded and analyzed to identify the attributes required for a quality education to work program. This analyzed data was used determine patterns and these patterns identified the essential attributes. “The attributes was found relevant if at least half the participants in at least three of the sites visited deemed it important” (p. 4). These essential attributes were then used to guide Ellibee to form a grounded theory regarding this study as well as recommendations.

Ellibee (1997) found several attributes that the participants regarded as essential. These include: a safe school climate; work experience opportunities at both the school and job sites; business and corporate involvement; advisory committee utilization; administrative support; involvement of postsecondary institutions; articulated curriculum; preparation for employment and higher education; supplemental financial researches; parental involvement; and a willingness to innovate. Ellibee completed her research with the statement that “the essential attributes of quality education-for-work curriculum are an integral part of curriculum transformation and challenge before all educators” (p. 8).

Evaluation of Research

In her research Ellibee (1997) used the method of grounded theory to identify key attributes of a quality vocational program. The grounded theory approach used a number of research sites and collected data. The data was then correlated and based on the number of sites that identified the attributes as important the researcher included or excluded them. The interviews continued until saturation had been reached and no new attributes were being identified. The research did identify almost ten key attributes that were identified across programs. This grounded theory study has an impact for the future as other training programs can look towards it to help them improve and obtain more funding. Based on the data, the number of research sites, and the data collected it would be hard to refute the conclusions.

Use and Effectiveness of Grounded Theory Research in Vocational Education

The use of grounded theory research is applicable in vocational education to identify trends and theories regarding both training and the results of training. The grounded theory approach uses multiple layers of surveys and other data collection to prove a point. This methodology is important to narrow down a theory or theses to a proven fact. It is important for a researcher using the grounded theory methodology to realize that the research may not always end in the direction they thought it would. The researcher must follow the data until saturation. Grounded theory can also be used as the initial part of an action research project. In this case the grounded theory could be used to develop change. Once the changes are in place through the action part of the research the results should support the grounded theory. Grounded theory is not exclusive to other research methodologies or projects and can include learning from prior research to help narrow the variables for a more grounded study.

Correlation Research in Vocational Education

Another method of research that has been used in both vocational and special education is that of correlation. One such research project completed in 1992, “Grading Secondary Vocational Education Students with Disabilities: A national Perspective,” compared the grading of secondary vocational students with disabilities to secondary vocational students without disabilities. This study was an exploratory study to describe secondary vocational education teachers’ methods of grading vocational students with disabilities (Rojewski, Pollard, & Meers, 1992).

The researcher’s objectives were to answer the following questions:

1. 1.Describe current grading practices used by secondary vocational educators for mainstreamed learners with disabilities, as well as perceptions of teaching and grading success, intended messages of grades issued, degree of involvement in individualized education program (IEP) process, training on issues related to grading practices, and developmental changes experienced in approaches to grading these students.

2. 2.Describe the perceptions held by secondary vocational educators on grading and evaluation issues for mainstreamed learners with disabilities (p.70).

Rojewski, Pollard, and Meers (1992) chose 275 vocational instructors from the 4,557 secondary vocational instructors who hold membership in the American Vocational Association. The selected instructors were mailed a questionnaire to return and that was followed up with an email reminder three weeks later to those not returning the survey. The survey was a four-part instrument designed to illicit responses on grading students with special needs. The first portion of the survey asked about issues related to grading practices and a second part asked the instructors to select the grading practices that they found most effective. The second portion of the survey asked teachers to respond to an 11 question attitude survey gauging reactions on a four part scale. One example question was “Modifications in grading procedures for students with special needs are unfair to students without special needs” (p. 71). The third portion of the survey asked the teachers demographic information such as age, years of teaching experience, gender, and highest degree earned. The fourth and final portion of the survey allowed teachers to elaborate on any other question and make additional comments with regard to the grading systems and evaluation of special populations. The survey returned 133 useable questionnaires. The data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences computer program too generate statistics aimed at answering the research questions. The researchers reworded negatively worded items on the attitude scale were recoded to be consistent with positively worded responses.

Rojewski, Pollard, and Meers (1992) then looked for patterns in the results. The results showed a high degree (94.7%) of success in teaching vocational students with disabilities. The results also showed that vocational teachers did not use any set grading methods often using different approaches to determine the grades assigned to their students. Most vocational instructors preferred competency based grading over norm-referenced or traditional grading methods. Close to one-third of the teachers used a double standard for grading with regards to students with disabilities. The use of other grading methods such as contracting, independent studies and pass/no pass was relatively low.

Rojewski, Pollard, and Meers (1992) concluded that there appeared to be a lack of training for vocational personnel with regards to evaluating and grading students with disabilities. The study did not show a direct relationship to this lack of training with perceptions towards the instruction of students with disabilities. Additionally the study suggests that colleges and universities must seek to address these issues in training for future teachers. School must also address these issues for in-service training.

Evaluation of Research

In their research Rojewski, Pollard, and Meers (1992) used the opinions of the teachers to form their conclusions. For example they asked the teachers to rate a number of statements on a four-part scale. They did not say there where any right or wrong answers which may have allowed them to get a more honest answers than they would have gotten by asking a “yes or no” type question.

By using a questionnaire with four questions the researchers were able to reach a large subject pool. The larger the pool and the more focused the questions allows the researchers to more confidently meet their research objectives. The correlation was completed by the statistics and graphs created by the SPSS software and the encoding of this data preserved the subject pool’s privacy. The limited questionnaire also allowed the researchers to reach a much larger subject pool than may have been reached using evaluation or grounded theory research.

The outcome of the study did not surprise me. The study showed that there was a double standard in place for grading students with special needs and also showed that alternative grading such as pass/fail and contracting was seldom used. The schools as we know them today are very grade based. In this situation it would require institutional changes to resolve this issue. What Rojewski, Pollard, and Meers have done is to bring forth the problem in a scientific manner. The next step may possibly be an action research project to develop a new grading method that was fairer to all.

Another correlative study, “Self-Esteem as an Outcome Measure in Studies of Vocational Rehabilitation for Adults with Severe Mental Illness,” was completed to find out if self-esteem could be used to measure the successful outcome of vocational training for adults with severe mental illness (Torrey, Mueser, McHugo, & Drake, 2000). In this study the Rossenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a measurement of self-esteem, a self-evaluation of ones own worth, was used to measure the subject population. The method used was to test a total of 143 students out of two New Hampshire cities with populations of 119,000 and 166,000 who were enrolled in a vocational rehabilitation program. The students were all between 20 and 65 years of age, not currently working, wanted to be employed, and had no serious medical conditions that may have effected employment. The students were tested when first enrolled as a baseline and then tested six, twelve, and eighteen months later using measurements of self-esteem, symptoms, life satisfaction, work status, housing status, and total income. Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale using an evaluation of 10 items. The scale rates each participant on a 4-point scale with 10 being the highest self-esteem to 40 being the lowest self-esteem.

The results where evaluated by the research team over time. The researchers looked at the associations between self-esteem and work. They also evaluated the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and evaluated its stability over time. Finally the researchers evaluated the relationship between self-esteem and other variables such as demographics, diagnosis, life satisfaction, income, job status, and housing status over the period of the study (Torrey, Mueser, McHugo, & Drake, 2000). The research team concluded that self-esteem, per the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, is relatively stable and reflects life satisfaction rather than being an indication of occupational performance or function.

This correlative study evaluated a number of variables all based on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and looked for correlations (or relationships) between that scale and the other variables. The researchers found a relationship between the life satisfaction and self-esteem but not between self-esteem and job performance and occupational functionality (Torrey, Mueser, McHugo, & Drake, 2000).

Evaluation of Research

While the outcome of this study was interesting and surprised me (I would have thought that self-esteem would have also affected job performance and occupational functionality) the research appears to be valid. The correlative methods allowed the researcher to link two or more variables through the use of questionnaires and testing. It would have been relatively easy to increase the number of students involved and also widen the area of the subject population. It would have also been interesting to see the outcome of the study had it included a population center outside of New Hampshire; perhaps in one of the more troubled Boston suburbs, the results may have been a little different.

Uses and Effectiveness of Correlation Research in Vocational Education

Correlation serves a purpose in vocational education research as through it we can evaluate a cause and effect relationship. In the first study the researchers looked at the correlation between training and grading as well as program satisfaction. In the second study the researchers looked at a more direct correlation between self-esteem and occupational success following vocational rehabilitation. In both these cases correlation was a useful tool for the researchers.

The problem with correlation would be if the number of variables increased greatly. The vocational classroom is not always a stable environment; it is the nature of vocational education to deal with the unexpected changes in a program or class. A correlative study could be affected based by these unexpected variables. For example if there is a change of available equipment (such as breakdowns or new donations), or if an instructor leaves there is a new dynamic in the classroom. In some year round programs new students join an existing class each quarter. These new students bring with them different skills and personalities, which have the potential to affect the correlational study.

A few other examples of a correlative study would be: What is the effect on a vocational graduate’s employment based on the ratio of classroom instruction and hands-on instruction? Another one would be: Is student performance (such as hands-on ability) affected by group size in shop? These are variables that can be controlled and can be measured through the use of practical exams and graphed. In some cases the research needs to control variables that range far outside what can be achieved in the classroom and must move this research into a laboratory environment where tighter control and un-natural conditions are possible. This type of research is experimental.

Experimental Research in Vocational Education

One such experimental research study was completed by University of Minnesota (2006) to find if high school students who took vocational education with enhanced math instruction had better standardized test grades than other students in a control group. During the 2004-2005 school year the study involved more than 3,000 students in nine states. The study split the students into two groups. In one, the career and technical education teachers taught the standard curriculum. In the other group the career and technical education instructor was partnered with a math teacher to create an enhanced math curriculum.

Researchers from the University of Minnesota (2006) tested the students in each group were pretested for math skills at the beginning of the year and post-tested at the end of the year. In the enhanced math groups the teachers spent about 10% of the classroom time teaching math, were the control group received the normal curriculum. The teachers received additional training during the summer months and received five days in a professional development workshop and five additional days over the course of the year to learn how to enhance their teaching and curriculum. The researchers method for enhancing the math was to emphasize the math that was already in the curriculum, making the math that was normally found just in textbooks applicable in real-life – we call this “trade math” at Porter and Chester Institute.

At the end of the school year the researchers found that the students who were part of the enhanced math group significantly outperformed those that were in the control group. The researchers concluded that schools could significantly improve the students’ grasp on mathematics while not spending significant amounts of time teaching it (University of Minnesota, 2006).
Evaluation of Research

By breaking the students into two groups and changing the curriculum of one group and not the other the researchers changed “real-life” for the experimental group. The experiment allowed them to then evaluate the two variables and see the improvement of one group.

While the outcome of this research was valid, the method was troubling. I question if at some point during the course of the study the outcome was clear and at this point the students in the control group should have begun to receive the enhanced instruction afforded to the test group. It raises the question if holding back on improvements follows the rules of “doing no harm” to your research subjects? Was this research continued to the end of the school year in order to complete a study or where the results just not noticeable until the end of the year?

The research did show the importance of mixing math into the curriculum and teaching it in a way the students can understand, real-life examples. This is a lesson that I think educators in other schools and programs can follow and help students succeed.

In 1999, the Teachers College of Columbia University completed another experimental research project that studied the career development effects of career magnet schools versus comprehensive schools. The study “investigated the institutional and social and psychological effects of attending an urban career magnet high school” (Flaxman, Guerrero & Gretchen, 1999). The study used a random assignment database and a lottery mechanism that assigned seats in career magnet high schools.

The methodology for this research used a subject base of 110 graduates of four career magnet schools and four comprehensive high schools. The graduates included 51 students whom attended the career schools and 59 students who attended the comprehensive high schools. Because the research was trying to follow an experimental design the researchers made sure that for every student chosen to attend the career school one was included who was “rejected” at the same time. All the graduates were then surveyed using closed-ended and open-ended interviews (Flaxman, Guerrero & Gretchen, 1999).

Flaxman, Guerrero and Gretchen (1999) write that the results of the research and surveys found interesting differences between the graduates of the two systems. The researchers write that the graduates of the magnet schools were “more articulate than the graduates of the comprehensive high schools: they gave more answers to questions when given a chance to make a second or third choice on the scale, and their responses were more specific and comprehensive to open-ended questions” (Comparative Effects of the Career Magnet Experience, ¶1). The researchers found that these differences along with differences in high school and work experiences, peer and family relationships, and post high school work can explain the impact of the magnet schools to their career development. This study was experimental as it took the lottery system that is normally used for assigning students to popular school programs and used it to compare the lottery winners and the lottery users for a research study two years after their graduation from the four-year program.

Uses and Effectiveness of Experimentation in Vocational Education

Experimentation serves the purpose of allowing the researcher to alter reality, or altering the everyday, to test out a theory or a hypothesis. Experimentation can be useful in vocational education research when it is possible to take a group of subjects, separate them from the other subjects and alter the methods, or environment they are taught in to prove or disprove a point.

One of the problems that can be seen with experimentation is the “altering of reality.” By putting one subject group in an enhanced environment and leaving one group in an existing environment it may be possible to actually harm those being left behind. An example of this may be those being exposed to a new method of teaching or grading. The harm may not develop until far after the conclusion of the research. The researcher needs to ask themselves if the study can be completed in any other manner than to do experimentation and then if experimentation is the only option would it be possible to make the other form of training available to those in the control group in the future?

As was seen with the combination study of evaluation and experimentation the two can fit together. Also, experimentation may work in tandem with correlation. Experimentation will provide data; it is up to the researcher to do something with that data. Each study and each method of study must be chosen carefully to reach the desired results. Experimentation may not be possible for large-scale research but there are other methods available that make large-scale research possible without great expense to the researcher. One of these methods is a case study, were the case is the center of the research not the variables that are derived from it (Schwandt, 2001).

Case Studies

One case study in vocational education was completed in 1999 where the researcher investigated the misconceptions of competency-based assessment for vocational/career training in the United Kingdom. The researcher used the Association of Accounting Technicians for a case study and attempted to “correct the misconceptions and competence based assessment in vocational and professional contexts” (Purcell, 2001, p. 30). One of the misconceptions is that the competency-based assessments prepare the student for the required skills but do not prepare the student for higher achievements (Purcell, 2001).

In this study the Purcell (2001) did a literature review of the reasons and the rational behind competency-based assessment in the U.K. and then evaluated the Association of Accounting Technicians (AAT) specifically. The researcher found that the competencies as a part of their assessment requirements were sound and they met the needs. The researcher also noted that it is up the qualifying body (or trade association) to “develop competence-based qualifications which are valid, effective, reliable, and which meet business needs” (p. 38). The researcher concluded that in is to early to tell if recent and future developments in education and training policy are likely to deal with the problems and misconceptions. But the researcher pointed out that the awarding bodies, professional associations and others who design the assessments “must be free to determine their own systems” (p. 38).

In this study the researcher used an existing body (Association for Accounting Technicians) as the basis for the research. By using the one group as a study group she was able to come to conclusions about a widespread program of competency-based assessments.

Another case study in the United States researched the occupational programs in nine community colleges. The study, “Preparation for Midskilled Work and Continuous Learning in Nine Community Occupational Programs” was designed around what the researcher believed was a current problem in occupational education research: there is a significant lack of research in community college occupational programs. Torraco (2008) wrote, “most of the evidence available in the education literature about the effectiveness of teaching and learning is from K-12 education, not from the community colleges” (p. 210). The researcher believed that further research must be done to ensure that the students are ready for the “demands of the workplace after graduation” (p. 210).

Torraco (2008) described the questions that guided the study:

Research Question 1: What educational experiences are perceived by graduates as most beneficial in preparing them for jobs?

Research Question 2: What educational experiences are perceived by graduates as least beneficial in preparing them for their jobs?

Research Question 3: In what areas do supervisors believe graduates were well prepared by their programs?

Research Question 4: In what areas do supervisors believe graduates were inadequately prepared by their programs?

Research Question 5: How well do occupational programs prepare students to keep learning on their own after graduation (i.e., develop the capability for continuous learning)? (p. 213)

Torraco (2008) wrote that the study used a multiple case study design where each community college occupational programs was treated as a “case”. The data was collected from each case from the graduates and the supervisors of local industry that hired them. The community colleges were selected based on high completion rates and high post-graduate employment (placement) rates. The nine programs selected were: Respiratory Care Technology, Radiological Technology, Dental Hygiene, Medical Office Administration, Paralegal, Heating, Ventilation, Aid Conditioning, and Refrigeration (HVAC/R), Utility Line Technician, Nondestructive Testing. Through these selections ten supervisors were interviewed and 39 students. The interview sessions were recorded and transcribed with follow-up telephone calls if needed.

Torraco (2008) writes that the results of the study showed that the graduates from the trades found applied learning experiences, such as the labs and work based learning as the most beneficial. Students in the applied health fields found that the clinical experiences in hospitals and dental offices were most helpful to them. One of the HVAC graduates said, “I learn things best from doing things hands-on, not just from books. You don’t really know it until you operate the equipment and put your hands on the materials” (p. 220).

Torraco (2008) also wrote that the graduates also identified some less beneficial parts to their programs, such as the general education requirements of the associates’ degree. They felt it was tacked on to their occupational programs with no real reason in real life. Some of the graduates also identified an occupational course that they did not feel a need for. Most of the students also were unable to identify anything that had been done to prepare them for continuous learning in the future.

In another part of the research Torraco (2008) describes the supervisors interviews as the supervisors having both positive and negative things to say. For example the supervisors who hired the HVAC/R technicians said that the technicians were well prepared to change parts and do system installs. The supervisors said that the students were able to recite possible problems with the installed equipment in the future. However the same supervisors said that the students were unable to deal effectively when they actually encountered a problem in a service call. The supervisors also noted that when confronted with multiple tasks the graduates were not able to prioritize and “were challenged by the fast pace of their work schedules” (p. 226).

Torraco (2008) writes that the study identified the need for improvement in three areas: there was a lack of connection between academic and occupational content; the students were not being developed for future learning; and the students identified a need for more emphasis on applied learning experiences. The researcher points out that, “relative to other community college programs, the nine occupational programs examined in the current study had high graduation rates and high employment rates. These programs were generally quite effective in preparing students to enter their occupations” (p. 234).

Evaluation of Research

Torraco’s 2008 research regarding the outcome of students in vocational education had some results that were not surprising. Prior experts, such as Vygotsky in the early 1900’s pointed out that students had to be able to connect life-skills to learning for real learning to occur. By looking at the vocational/technical school and researching the students reaction to both the academic and vocational portion of their degree programs Torraco was further able to confirm Vygotsky’s (among many others) teachings. Torraco not only looked at the current learning outcomes based on student opinion at the end of the program, he went further and contacted the employers of these graduates to see how they were doing in the real world. I believe this is an important part of any skills (or educational) research project. The outcome of true learning does not happen until the student attempts to put the skills to use.

Torraco’s (2008) research could be used to develop an action research project where the curriculum is slowly adjusted to combine the academics into the occupational portion of the program. For example in an HVAC program the math skills could be mixed with system design and service skills. The writing portion of the curriculum could be included in the hands-on as all service technicians need to be able to write legibly. These could be turned into “life-skills” rather than outside academic content.

Usefulness of Case Study in Vocational Education Research

The study by Torraco (2008) demonstrates the usefulness of case study in vocational research. Case study allowed the researcher to evaluate the dynamics of the courses, the students, and the teachers in one setting (case).By looking at a number of cases and consolidating the results the researcher was able to come to valid conclusions about vocational education in community colleges. The researcher could take this a step further and while combining other research methods develop an experimental or perhaps even a grounded theory study on this subject. Perhaps a closer look at the role of applied work in an occupational program would be worthy of future research.

The Different Methods in Vocational Education

A review of the grounded theory, case study, evaluation, correlative, and experimental research shows the place for each but also that there is some overlap. Additionally some of the methods, such as experimentation, must be used with extreme care as to “do no harm”. A correlative study and an experimental study both include data collection. The experimental study may use correlation for the evaluation of the data. Grounded theory may also use both experimentation and correlation for data collection and evaluation.

Evaluative research may use case study as well as correlation for data collection and evaluation. It is also possible that evaluation may include some experimentation to include a control group and a study group.

It appears that in the area of vocational education research it is important, just as it is in the occupation trades, to select the correct tool for the job. Sometimes the correct tool is not a singular object and sometimes it requires more than one to get the desired results. As we tell our students in the classroom, “there is a difference between a hammer and a screwdriver” we need to remember there is a difference between experimentation and case study. One can be a drastic action and the other may be an observation.

Grounded theory in vocational education has the ability to cement a theory into a fact. It has the ability to say “without a shadow of a doubt, this is a fact.” Grounded theory has some negatives as well. One such negative is the length of time and steps to the study required to ground a theory. Vocational education is fast changing and unlike K-12 education most schools have the students for a year. This does not provide much time to ground a theory and perform the research without a change in the subject population.

Experimentation as a part of vocational education research shows some real promise as a research method if the population is large enough and the research is carried out ethically. Most vocational and occupational students are used to a laboratory environment where the instructors are introducing problems and thus are in a constant state of experimentation. One problem with experimentation is one of ethics. If a researcher is fairly sure of a positive outcome to a problem by taking a certain action, isn’t it owed to the students that they all receive the benefits of this new outcome? I know that I would have a difficult time as a researcher not allowing all my students to reap the benefits of an improvement. Because of this ethical dilemma as I have read through material available on experimentation in vocational education, I have some doubts about this practice, my fears relate to unknowingly harming those who do not receive instruction based on a new idea or change, and I can also see its positive outcome. It is a matter of picking the right tool for the job.

Evaluation research is a constant in education and thus can be used in vocational education effectively as well. A researcher can ask, “If I do ‘this’ does learning increase or decrease?” and by the use of standardized testing or evaluation of skills learned and skills retained does ‘this’ work? As instructors we all evaluate our students on a constant basis, if not through testing then we observe our students in the shop, in the laboratory, and interacting with classroom projects. I think this may be one of the easiest research methods to use in vocational education.

Case study in vocational education has a real place as well. The ability to take four or five research questions and go to one site, or perhaps one program on a site and answer those question is a plus and possibly a time saver. A case study allows the researcher to do an in-depth evaluation of a program. Driscoll (2004) makes a case for the localization of research data. In her article, “Make Local Data Work for You: Research Can Make an Impact on Policy Makers” Driscoll writes that, “one of the best ways to put some teeth into what you are communicating and demonstrating to your legislators is to provide them with facts and figures to back up the good work in your community” (p. 8). One such way to gather local data, and show the positive effects on the students being served is by case studies. The negative side of the case study is the data interpretation and the possibility of outside influences affecting the research. Moods, attitudes, and student/instructor relationships could affect the outcome and the learning from a case study.

While each type of research methodology has its positives and negatives, it would seem that using more than one type together as part of a mixed methodology research would possibly yield the best results. Perhaps case study could be used to narrow down the research question and find the variables, then evaluation and correlation to analyze the data and help draw the conclusions. It comes back to picking the right tool for the job, such as in the research proposal (Appendix A) designed to identify the characteristics of successful vocational students at Porter and Chester Institute in Rocky Hill, CT. In this proposal the researcher will use correlation to answer the question, “In the last two years what are the characteristics of the successful vocational student in the Heating, Ventilation, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning program at Porter and Chester Institute?”

The conclusion would foster change to provide more opportunity to those who have been unable to complete the program; possibly the knowledge of what characteristics the successful student have would allow those who do not have the same characteristics and are not doing well to be helped. Completion of a vocational program is important as it allows people to have jobs and provide for themselves and their families. Employment is a route out of poverty towards social change and perhaps towards further education and learning in the future.

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Appendix

A Research Proposal to Determine Characteristics of a Successful Vocational Student

Introduction

In vocational education students require the skills to enter a trade at an entry level position and perform their jobs successfully as they continue to learn. The vocational program at Porter and Chester Institute takes adults, who either have a G.E.D. or a high school diploma or teaches them a trade, such as Heating Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration (HVAC/R). All of the vocational and trade programs at Porter and Chester Institute do not expect a student to have any skills or any trade experience prior to enrolling into the program; it is left to the instructor, guided by a curriculum to mold the novice into an employable technician.

In the last ten years the trades have seen a large reduction of the pool of technicians and service people. For example, in the HVAC/R trade in Connecticut the technician pool is lower due to licensing restriction and apprenticeship rules. The vocational schools must be able to fill this gap or their will eventually become a significant shortage of technicians. The question for most school administrators in tight economic conditions is how to attract the most qualified applicants to the school, and what are the characteristics of the successful vocational student?

The Problem

Most research in education has been in the K-12 areas and not from community colleges and vocational education (Torraco, 2008). With the recent passage of legislation promoting career and technical education the research trend is shifting, but it is shifting slowly. One of the problems with vocational and technical research compared to that of K-12 education is that the students are not required to be present. Attendance to these programs is voluntary so the researcher begins with a skewed subject pool.

To research the characteristics of the successful vocational program the researcher must find a school or schools that have both voluntary attendance and mandated attendance in a program. This is difficult in adult vocational studies as the majority of the post-secondary vocational programs are “for profit” institutions and they do not market to those mandated to be present. Additionally although one of the sales tools of most schools is placement following graduation and those mandated to be present are not guaranteed to be employable in the trades because of criminal records, appearance, and attitudes. This means that some of the graduates will not be employed and are difficult to locate to be a part of a research project.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study is to identify the key characteristics of the successful vocational student at Porter and Chester Institute. Using correlational methodology the study should be able to identify a link between characteristics and success in the program.

A possible second study could be initiated and expand the pool of subjects to go outside of Porter and Chester Institute and check to see if these characteristics are found in all successful trade school graduates.

Definitions

Successful student: A student who feels they are learning and who is able to independently put their new skills to use comfortably in the shop environment. The successful student has also internalized the theory or reasons behind the skills they are being taught.

Successful graduate: A graduate of the vocational student who is employed in their trade and for whom this employment has made a positive change in their lives.

Internal motivation: The internal want or need to learn. This motivation comes from the student himself or herself.

External motivation: The want or need to learn that is driven by outside forces such as employers, welfare to work programs, or parole offices. External motivation is someone telling the student that they need to learn either through a reward or punishment.

Hypothesis

A student’s success in a vocational program can be affected by measurable characteristics such as race, ethnic backgrounds, age, gender, or IQ as well as by internal and external motivation, which cannot be measured.

Research Questions

Our primary questions that we want to answer are:

1. 1.What are the characteristics (race, ethnic background, age, gender, scholastic level, mechanical aptitude, IQ and income level) of the students enrolling in a vocational program at Porter and Chester Institute?

2. 2.What are the characteristics (race, ethnic background, age, gender, scholastic level, mechanical aptitude, IQ and income level) of the students graduating from a vocational program at Porter and Chester Institute?

3. 3.What are the characteristics of the graduate students who are still employed in their industry two years after graduation?

4. 4.What are the characteristics (race, ethnic background, age, gender, scholastic level, mechanical aptitude, IQ and income level) of the successful vocational student at Porter and Chester Institute?

Population

The ideal sample population would be all vocational and technical school students and graduates in the United States. Because of the size of this research, the different privacy laws, and the time involved a more practical research would be all of the vocational and technical students within Porter and Chester Institute, Inc’s six campuses. The target subject pool for this research will be 200; among these 200 the researcher will recruit 100 graduates and 100 active students.

Sampling

The study will be conducted in the vocational and technical classrooms at Porter and Chester Institute. Porter and Chester Institute is a private vocational school with contracts with the Connecticut Department of Labor, Connecticut Department of Corrections, and the Connecticut Child Protective Services to provide mandated career training. Porter and Chester Institute also provides, in the same programs, training to those who voluntarily enroll.

Students and graduates will be recruited voluntarily. The researcher will contact graduates and ask them if they would like to take place in a research project regarding their experience in vocational school. The current student population will be asked if they would like to complete an anonymous questionnaire to participate in a research project. We will answer any questions the graduates and students have regarding the use of the data, the purpose of the research, and their involvement. This research does not require any deception so all questions regarding the research will be answered honestly. The researcher will also offer to share the results of the research with all involved.

Methods and Procedures

All students, graduates and faculty members surveyed will be asked to review and sign an informed consent form. Once they sign the informed consent form they will be mailed (or given) a questionnaire and asked to return it within one week.

The student questionnaire will ask the students to identify themselves by trade chosen, race, gender, and age bracket. The student will also be asked to rate themselves on their perception of their own mechanical aptitude prior to enrolling in the vocation program. They will be asked about their prior scholastic achievements, such as grade level completed and grade point averages. The students will also be asked to rate their perception of their success in the training program and their current abilities. The students will also be asked to take a short IQ test.

The graduate student questionnaire will be very similar to the active student questionnaire except it will ask them to rate their perception of their current job performance and their performance in their trade. It will also ask them on their success in the vocational training program using both practical (hands-one shop) work grades, as well as theory (classroom) grades as well as perceived success (did the student feel they learned independent of grades) as the indicators.

Data Retention and Privacy

All data collected will be encoded with a random non-repeating number to ensure privacy. Un-encoded data will be kept in a secure, locked location, until final report is published to make it possible to return to subjects for more detailed answers. Once final report published the un-encoded data will be destroyed.

Data Analysis

The data from this study will be entered into he SPSS software for charting and evaluation purposes. The data will be evaluated for correlations between:

1. 1. 1.Race and success in the vocational program

   2. 2.Race and success following the vocational program

   3. 3.Ethnic background and success in the vocational program

   4. 4.Ethnic background and success following the vocational program

   5. 5.Age and success in the vocational program

   6. 6.Age and success following the vocational program

   7. 7.Gender and success in the vocational program

   8. 8.Gender and success following the vocational program

   9. 9.Income level and success in the vocational program

   10. 10.Income level and success following the vocational program.

Each correlational graph will also separate those that are enrolled or completed the HVAC/R program at Porter and Chester Institute. The graphs would then be converted to a positive or negative correlation that should show the relationship between a students characteristics and their success as defined by this research.

The outcome of this survey and study will hopefully allow the researcher to observe a pattern between characteristics and successful completion.

Limitations of this Research

This research may be limited as it is sampling one program, and one school. The small sampling pool may prevent the results from applying to other schools or programs. There is a possibility for further research by asking the question, “what are the characteristics of the successful post-secondary vocational student entering the trades?”

Significance of the Study

What makes a student succeed has been an interesting question. For trade school this is a matter of profit, loss and reputation. These schools such as Porter and Chester Institute want to attract the best candidates to the program for successful completion. Successful completion in most programs includes successful career placement. If the student is unsuccessful and drops from the program it affects profitability and the institutes reputation for retention and career placement. For researchers and instructors once there is a known variable it becomes possible to perhaps alter the program and the method of instructors to help those succeed who may not be able to under the current system.

It is a question of inclusion. How can a vocational program at Porter and Chester Institute be altered to offer a greater chance of success for those who may not have the primary characteristics? Additionally if the potential student is aware of the successful characteristics is it possible to develop them?

References

Torraco, R. J. (2008). Preparation for mid-skilled work and continuous learning in nine community college occupational programs. Community College Review, 35(3), 208-236. Doi:10.1177/0091552107310119